Acid value [Oil]
The acid value of an oil may be used as a measure of quality. However, the acid value of the oil must not be too high, as this denotes an excessively high content of free fatty acids, which causes the oil to turn sour. Discoloration may also occur.
Acid value [Flour]
Acid value is a measure of the extent to which the fat fraction in the flour has been acted upon by enzymes that are naturally present in the grain. These enzymes split fats into free fatty acids and glycerol during flour storage. These free fatty acids can give an undesirable taste if at high level. The level of acidity is measured by the quantity of alkali necessary to neutralise the acidity, hence the result of acidity is expressed as mg of alkali, KOH (potassium hydroxide).
Aflatoxin [Grain]
Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring mycotoxin produced by two types of mold: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aspergillus flavus is common and widespread in nature and is most often found when certain grains are grown under stressful conditions such as drought. At least 13 different types of aflatoxin are produced in nature with aflatoxin B1 considered as the most toxic. While the presence of Aspergillus flavus does not always indicate harmful levels of aflatoxin it does mean that the potential for aflatoxin production is present
Antioxidants [Food]
Antioxidants are substances that inhibit oxidation. They are added to oils and fats to provide greater stability and longer shelf life by delaying the onset of oxidative rancidity.
Ash Content [Flour]
Ash content or mineral residue, is another measurement of milling efficiency. The lower the ash content, the whiter (in the case of bread wheats) and more refined the flour because it has a greater percentage of starchy endosperm. Ash content has no relationship to semolina color.
Ash (conductivity) [Sugar]
Ash, inorganic matter in sugar, residue left after bagasse is burnt. In developping countries bagasse are used as fuel source to generate steam for mill operation. Conductivity ash, %m/m: 0.04 max for white sugar and 0.20 max for soft white sugar.
Bio-availability [Nutrition]
The degree to which the amount of an ingested nutrient is absorbed and available to the body is called bioavailability
Mineral bioavailability is affected by
- Chemical form of the mineral, e.g. iron sulfate has a higher bio-availabity than elemental iron
- Element in the diet that can chemically bind the mineral (e.g. oxalate in spinach)
- Interaction with other minerals (e.g. large amount of zinc decreases absorption of iron and copper)
- Presence of vitamins enhance bioavailability (e.g. vitamin C improves iron absorption, vitamin D enhances the absorbtion of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium)
- Minerals from animal sources are better absorbed than those from plant sources (Plants contain binders such as phytates)
Bleaching [Oil]
This is a process whereby pigments, impurities, trace metals; gums and oxidized materials are removed from oils and fats by absorptive cleansing using bleaching clays or activated carbon.
Blending [Product]
Blending, i.e. mixing two or more products together to obtain a finished product having enhanced properties (e.g. fortified blended foods are a mix of pulses, cereals, minerals and vitamins - it is product balanced in terms of proteins, energy, micronutrients).
Brassica sterol [Oil]
Sterol composition: This particularly useful parameter identifies adulteration with liquid vegetable oils, which tend to contain considerably higher levels of desmethylsterols than olive oils.
Brassicasterol, a phytosterol unique to canola. Phytosterols have received a great deal of attention in natural health food markets for their nutritional properties, both plant sterol and stanol esters can effectively lower cholesterol levels in humans.
Broken grain
Cracked grains are the single largest contributor to rice breakage during milling which reduces head rice yields. Broken grains are not desirable as it facilitates the grain infestation and contamination.
Bunt [Grain]
Bunt is characterized the presence of bunt balls or black spores. Infected grain may have a fishy odour. Common bunt is a wheat disease caused by two closely related fungi, Tilletia caries and Tilletia foetida. The disease is also called stinking or covered smut. In infected plants, kernels on headed plants are replaced with bunt balls containing black powdery spores of the fungus. Bunt balls can be removed by following procedures for cleaning for grade improvement, as long as there is no odour. If there is an odour, the presence of bunt balls is a grading factor in wheat. If there is no odour, but kernels are tagged with bunt, the sample is considered naturally stained. Bunt reduces yield of infected crops, and it reduces the value of the crop, even in mildly infected crops. It is not as common as it once was in Canada, because we have developed effective control measures and new cultivars that are resistant to the disease.
Butylated hydroxyanisole BHA
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) is a phenolic compound that is often added to foods to preserve fats. BHA is an antioxidant. Oxygen reacts preferentially with BHA rather than oxidizing fats or oils, thereby protecting them from spoilage. In addition to being oxidizable BHA is fat-soluble. BHA molecules are incompatible with ferric salts.
Butylated hydroxytoluene BHT
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are phenolic compounds that are often added to foods to preserve fats. BHT is an antioxidant. Oxygen reacts preferentially with BHT rather than oxidizing fats or oils, thereby protecting them from spoilage. In addition to being oxidizable BHT is fat-soluble. BHT molecules are incompatible with ferric salts.
Canola oil
Vegetable oil made from rapeseed. Lower in saturated fat than any other oil, canola oil also contains Omega-3 fatty acids which are said to lower cholesterol. It has almost no taste and is used both for cooking and for salad dressings.
Carotenes
- Beta-carotene: an isomer of carotene that is found in dark green and dark yellow fruits and vegetables
- Carotene: yellow or orange-red fat-soluble pigments in plants (e.g. red palm oil); is converted into vitamin A in the liver
Chalky grain
Immature grains are very slender, have a chalky appearance, and do not survive the milling process very well. If a cereal cargo contains a high percentage of immature grains, milling will create excessive bran, and broken grains.
Chemical Refining
This refers particularly to the removal of free fatty acids by alkali. The alkalis used are usually sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or soda ash, either singly or in combination. One novel chemical refining technique uses aqueous ammonia as the alkali.
Cloud Point [Oil]
This is a test to determine the temperature at which oil begins to cloud as a result of crystallization under controlled cooling. The cloud point is related to the unsaturation of an oil. In general, the higher the unsaturation of an oil, the lower its cloud point will be.
Crystallization [Fat, Sugar]
Crystallization is the three-step process of forming crystals and may take place from a melt or from a solution. The three steps are supercooling or super saturation; formation of crystalline nuclei; and growth of crystals. The process is important for fats and sugar in order to produce the desired texture in a solid product, or as a preliminary to fractionation.
Degumming [Oil]
Fats and oils contain complex compounds referred to as phosphatides, or more commonly as gums. They are removed during processing by a variety of treatments collectively referred to as degumming. The process involves treatment with water, or phosphoric acid, or polybasic organic acids, either individually or in combination, followed by centrifuging the precipitated material or by its absorption on a bleaching earth or filter.
Deodorization [Oil]
This process involves removal of those trace components, present in all edible oils, which give rise to odors and flavors. It is accomplished by the application of heat, steam and vacuum.
Discolored rice
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Paddy rice can ferment if exposed to wet conditions before it is dry. This can cause the rice to have an unattractive yellow appearance after milling which will downgrade its quality.
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Add to this the potential for microorganisms and fungi to grow around the germ end of the brown rice kernel (which can cause black spots), and you soon realize that keeping the paddy rice dry between harvesting and drying is essential to avoid discolored grains
Drying capacity [Oil]
Fats and fatty oils may dry under the action of atmospheric oxygen, with polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g. linoleic glycerides) absorbing oxygen and peroxides (e.g. linoxyn) forming a tough, resinified mass. This phenomenon is of particular significance during cargo handling and tank cleaning. Depending on their iodine value, fats and fatty oils are divided as follows in accordance with their drying capacity
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Nondrying oils: Iodine values are below 100.
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Semidrying oils: Iodine values range from 100 - 130.
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Drying oils: Drying oils have iodine values ranging from 130 - 190
Dunnage
Dunnage is the name for the materials used in holds and containers to protect goods and their packaging from moisture, contamination and mechanical damage. Dunnage may include plastic films, jute coverings, tarpaulins, wood (wooden dunnage), rice matting, nonwovens, liner bags or also inlets etc.. Depending on the use to which it is put, dunnage may be divided into floor, lateral, interlayer and top dunnage.
Ergot [Grain]
Ergot is a fungal disease which occurs on cereals and grasses. It is most prevalent on rye triticale, wheat, and barley, in decreasing order of occurrence. It is rarely found on oats. The disease produces hard dense fungus bodies, called sclerotia, having a purplish black exterior, a purplish white to off-white interior, and a relatively smooth surface texture
Erucic acid [Oil]
A fatty acid, C22H42O2, making up 40 to 50 percent of the total fatty acid in rapeseed and mustard seed.
Extraneous matter
Extraneous matter (or Foreign matter) are all organic and inorganic materials found in food.
Filth test: Rodent hair and insect fragments are determinded by digesting the flour with acid and adding the cooled digest to petrol in a separating funnel. the hair and insect fragments are trapped at the petrol/water interface, and can be collected and identified microscopically.
Fat acidity
The acid content in fat or oil is given by the quantity of free fatty acids formed by the degradation of triglycerides. This alteration occurs under unsuitable conditions of treatment and preservation of the fats and thus the acidity represents a basic indicator of the quality of the product. Substances with high water content, such as butter, are more subject to hydrolysis of the fats, and they can alter more easily, assuming the typical unpleasant smell and taste
The level of acidity is measured by the quantity of alkali necessary to neutralise the acidity, the result of acidity is expressed as mg of alkali, KOH (potassium hydroxide).
Free Fatty Acid
The free fatty acids (FFA) of an oil can be used as a measure of its quality. In refined vegetable oils, the lower the FFA the more acceptable the oil to the human palate. It is an indicator of rancidity.
Filth
Filth are impurities (e.g. hairs, feathers) of animal origin, including dead insects.
Fitness for human consumption [Food]
In food safety, "fit for human consumption" generally means that if a potentially dangerous substance (whether microbiological, chemical, or other) is not present in or on a product at a harmful level for human health. The product will not be considered adulterated or unfit for human consumption.
The fitness for human consumption will depends on the level of microbiological contaminants (i.e. Bacteria, virus, fungus and possibly toxins), the infestation level (i.e. by insects, rodents, birds), the level of chemicals (i.e. pesticides, dioxins, heavy metals, PCB), and/or the level of antibiotics and or growth promoters.
Foreign matter [Grain]
Foreign material is material other than grain of the same class that remains in the sample after the removal of dockage. Some examples of foreign materials found in grain samples are
Many of the materials, such as stones, ergot, and sclerotinia have separate tolerances. Foreign material reduces the value—there is less desired grain for the weight or volume purchased. In addition, the presence of foreign material in grain compromises the reputation for clean grain. Even the presence of other cereal grains can compromise the quality of the predominant grain.
Fortification
It is the addition of an ingredient for the purpose of enrichment (as the addition of vitamins to food).
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Restoration is the addition of a nutrient to a food in order to restore the original nutrient content. Enrichments the addition of nutrients to foods in accordance with a standard of identity as defined by food regulations. Both restoration and enrichment programmes usually involve the addition of nutrients that are naturally available or present in the food product.
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Standardization is the addition of nutrients to foods to compensate for natural variation, so that a standard level is achieved. Standardization is an important step to ensure a consistent standardized quality of the final product.
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Supplementation is the addition of nutrients that are not normally present or are present in only minute quantities in the food. More than one nutrient may be added, and they may be added in high quantities.
As compared with restoration and standardization, fortification has a special meaning: the nutrient added and the food chosen as a carrier have met certain criteria, so that the fortified product will become a good source of the nutrient for a targeted population. Nutrients added for food fortification may or may not have been present in the food carrier originally.
Fractionation [Oil]
Fractionation is the process of separation of an oil or fat into two or more fractions. The oil is cooled and crystallized under controlled conditions and the solid separated from the liquid by filtration or centrifugation. Fractionation of a fat is made possible by solubility differences between the component triglycerides. The fractions obtained have different physical and chemical properties from the original oil.
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Hagberg Falling Number [Grain]
The Hagberg Falling Number (HFN) is an internationally recognized measure, which allows the indirect determination of alpha-amylase activity (alpha-amylases are enzymes that decompose starch). This activity may become excessive if germinated grains are present.
Low values for HFN mean excessive levels of alpha-amylase causing loaves to be discolored, sticky and of poor resilience and texture. Thus, wheat grains whose alpha-amylase activity is too high do not suit baking industries and rather should be used for animal feeding.
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Below 120 seconds, the wheat grain lot is unfit for bakery use.
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Value lower than 180 seconds signifies an alpha-amylase activity that may be detrimental to the bread making process.
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Ideal level of activity is between 180s and 250s.
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However above 250 seconds, the lack of activity may be corrected by adding malt to the batch so that it may be used for bakery.
Hydrogenation [Oil]
This process involves addition of hydrogen to the double bonds of unsaturated acids in the molecules of an oil. By doing this, the properties of the fatty acids are changed and therefore also the properties and physical behavior of the oil. This chemical reaction is carried out by reacting the oil with gaseous hydrogen at elevated temperature and pressure, in the presence of a catalyst, usually nickel. Hydrogenation of oils and fats is also known as hardening.
Insoluble impurities [Oil]
Substances in oil not dissolvable in organic solvent such as petroleum ether etc.
Iodine value [Oil]
Iodine value (IV) determines the level of carbon saturation. Higher Iodine value generally implies a lower solidifying temperature. IV is a measure of the total number of unsaturated double bonds present in an oil. Iodine value, or iodine number, is a measure of the total amount of unsaturated fatty acids in an oil and is a measure of the number of grams of iodine which will combine with 100 grams of the oil. A low iodine value implies a high degree of saturation. Of the various procedures available, the most widely used is the Wijs method
Lovibond [Oil]
Lovibond Colour system, which is based on a calibrated series of red, yellow and blue glass color standards
Melting point [Oil]
Fats consist of a complex mixture of glycerides and therefore do not have sharp melting points, unlike pure chemical substances. The Melting point or slip melting point of a fat is defined as the temperature at which a column of fat in an open capillary tube moves up the tube when it is subjected to controlled heating in a waterbath. Because of their polymorphic behavior, the slip point of some fats is dependent on the previous treatment of the sample
Moisture
Moisture content is a critical factor in grain quality. If grain is too wet or too dry at harvest, damage occurs. Moisture also interacts with temperature and relative humidity in grain storage centers and during shipping, when too much moisture can spur mold growth, increase insect activity, and cause other quality losses
Oleic acid [Oil]
This is the most widely distributed of all fatty acids, found in practically every vegetable and animal fat. Rich sources are olive and peanut oils and palm olein.
Oxidation [Oil]
When oils or fats are oxidized, the unsaturated fatty acids react, resulting in rancidity. The most common mechanism of oxidation is a free radical chain reaction. This process is retarded by antioxidants such as tocopherols and tocotrienols, and accelerated by prooxidants such as trace metals and heat. The primary products of oxidation are hydroperoxides. These then decompose into secondary oxidation products such as aldehyes and ketones
P/L [Dough]
P Also known as the overpressure, the P is the maximum height (h) in mm. on the alveogram (i.e. record from Chopin alveograph used to measure flour strenght) multiplied by a factor of 1.1. This figure represents the viscosity, tenacity, or even strength of the sample. The AACC defines overpressure P as an indicator of dough resistance to deformation. As P rises, so does the resistance.
L is the average length, in millimeters, of the quintuplet curves from the point where the dough bubble starts to inflate to the point where the bubble bursts and the pressure drops suddenly. Unlike overpressure P, the meaning of this index seems to be unambiguous. L is commonly used as a measure of dough extensibility.
P/L This ratio is thought to indicate general gluten performance. In other words the balance between dough elasticity and plasticity. In general values of 0.40-0.70 are thought to be appropriate for bread baking. As the number rises, there will be a certain point where the dough will be too elastic/resistant, yielding a less developed loaf with compact crumb. Conversely, when very low P/L values indicate a dough that is too extensible. There is no absolute perfect value. Finding a balanced value that is appropriate for the application is key
Palm kernel oil [Oil]
This is the oil obtained from the kernel of the oil palm fruit. Its chemical composition is quite different from that of palm oil, which is obtained from the flesh of the palm fruit. Palm kernel oil is a lauric type, similar to coconut oil
Palm olein [Oil]
Palm olein is the liquid, more unsaturated fraction separated from palm oil after crystallization at a controlled temperature. The olein consists of a more homogeneous mixture of triglycerides and has properties and uses which are different from those of the original oil.
Palm stearin [Oil]
Palm stearin is the more saturated and more solid fraction of palm oil. Its fatty acid composition is variable depending on the process employed to isolate it, ranging from 53% to 88% for saturates, 16% to 37% for monounsaturates, and 3% to 10% for polyunsaturates. Palm stearin is used in formulating products that require a higher degree of saturation, such as margarines and shortenings
Parboiled [Rice]
Parboiling process: the rice is steamed, dried and then has some bran removed. This processing renders the grain easier to cook, giving it a less-pronounced flavour and a lighter texture.
It is more nutritious than white rice because it is processed prior to hulling, so the grain has the chance to absorb the bran’s nutrients before the bran is discarded (mainly B-vitamins).
Peroxide value [Oil]
Peroxide value (PV). The PV is an indication of the amount of hydroperoxides present in an oil. These compounds arise from lipid oxidation; therefore, the PV, expressed as milliequivalent oxygen per kilogram oil (meq/kg), is a measure of oil quality. The PV is greatly reduced by the refining process used for most vegetable oils.
pH
pH is a scaled measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a food: the lower the pH, the higher the acidity. Most bacteria that contribute to food spoilage do not prosper in acidic conditions. Pickled foods, for example, are made shelf stable by the addition of some type of acidifying agent, such as lemon juice or vinegar.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)
These are fatty acids having two or more double bonds in their carbon chain. The most common polyunsaturated fatty acid is linoleic acid. Corn oil, sunflower oil and soyabean oil are some vegetable oils that are rich in PUFA
Rancidity
Rancidity is a condition in which an off-flavor has developed in edible oils or fats, or manufactured food products; it is caused by oxidative deterioration. Primary oxidation products are odorless and tasteless but certain secondary decomposition products have particularly potent off-flavors and are detected by the palate at extremely low concentrations. The term rancidity is sometimes also used to describe the soapy taste resulting from the hydrolysis of lauric oils, leading to formation of short chain fatty acids.
Saponification [Oil]
Saponification is the reaction of a fat or oil with a strong alkali to form glycerol and soap. The theoretical amount of an alkali required is given by the Saponification Value of the oil or fat. This is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to saponify one gram of oil or fat. From the Saponification Value may be calculated the Saponification Equivalent which is the number of grams of an oil or fat saponified by one gram equivalent of potassium hydroxide. Soap is the product formed when: Fatty acids are neutralised by alkalis and Neutral fats are saponified by strong alkalis.
Shelf-life
Shelf life specifies the period of time which a product can be stored, under specified conditions, and remain in optimum condition and suitable for consumption.
A product's shelf life or safe storage time of a product, is affected by a number of variables, including intrinsic parameters, such as pH and moisture content, and extrinsic parameters, such as environmental factors.
Use by date: product should be used/eaten by the date mentioned on the packaging (use by term is placed on highly perishable foods which may pose a health risk if they are used beyond that date). Equivalent to expiry date.
Best before date: it is more about quality than safety, beyond the date there might be deterioration in appearance and taste (Best before date is used on more stable products such as flours, FBF, etc.). Equivalent to BUBD (Best use before date) and Best until date.
Specifications [Food]
A specification is a written description of a commodity, and it includes the specific requirements that the vendor must follow to meet the buyer's contract for delivering commodities.
Specifications used by WFP are international specifications or national specifications both by the producing countries and in some cases from importing countries.
Starch
Starch is a polysaccharide (meaning "many sugars") made up of glucose units linked together to form long chains. The number of glucose molecules joined in a single starch molecule varies from five hundred to several hundred thousand, depending on the type of starch. Starch is the storage form of energy for plants.
Sulphur dioxide [Sugar]
Sulphur dioxide is used to clarify the juice, i.e. to force the impurities to settle down. Codex Alimentarius max are 15 - 20 ppm for white sugar and brown sugar respectively.
Test weight [Grain]
Test weight is the weight of a measured volume of grain expressed in kilograms per hectolitre
Toxic or Noxious Seeds [Grain]
Grain products shall be free from toxic or noxious seeds in amounts which may represent a hazard to human health (e.g. Crotolaria (Crotalaria spp.), Corn cockle (Agrostemma githago L.), Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) Jimson weed (Datura spp.), and other seeds that are commonly recognized as harmful to health.
Trans fatty acid [Fat]
Trans fatty acids are formed during the partial hydrogenation of an oil. Some of the unsaturated fatty acids present are changed from their natural cis shape to a trans shape like that of the saturated acids. In consequence, many of the physical properties of trans-acids, such as melting point, are nearer to those of the saturated acids, although double bonds are still present.
Concerns have been raised for several decades that consumption of trans fatty acids might have contributed to coronary heart disease.
Urease index [FBF]
The primary purpose of the urease assay is to determine if soybean meal has been sufficiently heated to destroy most of the anti-nutritionalfactors.
Uric acid [Grain]
Uric acid in grain is an indicator of insect contamination or is used to monitor infestation. Mammals excrete nitrogen as urine. Uric acid is a non-protein nitrogen.
Level of unacceptability of uric acid is stated to be 10mg/100g and above.
W [Flour]
W Also known as, “the deformation energy”, the W represents the force required to inflate the dough bubble until rupture. Literally the W is the area under the curve on the graph, multiplied by a factor of 6.54. This value generally indicates the overall baking strength of the sample. The water absorption is generally thought to increase as the W increases. Loaf volume is also thought to increase as the W value rises.
Bread flour W values tend to be 200+, with number up to 400 being especially appropriate for dough undergoing long fermentation times.
Water activity [AW]
Water activity is defined as the ratio of the water vapor pressure of the food to that of pure water
Zeleny index [Wheat Flour]
The sedimentation value according to Zeleny (Zeleny value) describes the degree of sedimentation of flour suspended in a lactic acid solution during a standard time interval and this is taken as a measure of the baking quality. Swelling of the gluten fraction of flour in lactic acid solution affects the rate of sedimentation of a flour suspension. Both a higher gluten content and a better gluten quality give rise to slower sedimentation and higher Zeleny test values. The sedimentation value of flour depends on the wheat protein composition and is mostly correlated to the protein content, the wheat hardness, and the volume of pan and hearth loaves.
Wheat with a Zeleny volume (ml) of between 22 and 30 is acceptable for EC wheat but does require a machinability test. Wheat with a Zeleny volume (ml) of 30 or over does not require a machinability test. |